Jamesian Philosophy Refreshed

  As you may have noticed, dear reader, I have for a long time been presenting new blog posts every Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday. Yet today is Thursday and this is the first post this week.    My apologies if you are disappointed.  I hope to be back to a regular schedule next week. 

I just realized something.  I've always been kinda nerdy, but I've never fit in even among my fellow nerds.  Why not?  Perhaps because Dante's DIVINE COMEDY was for me what THE LORD OF THE RINGS was for the 'normal' nerd. Hmmmmm. 

The coalition that put Donald Trump into office twice is coming unravelled. That judgment is of the jigsaw-perceiving sort.  One of its pieces is the recent Republican Party primary in Iowa.  https://www.wsaw.com/video/2026/06/03/lahn-wins-iowa-gop-governor-race-turek-takes-democratic-senate-primary/   "Make America Healthy Again," a loose grouping itself, of people who read Ivan Illich and those who just want to be able to drink unprocessed (raw) milk without governmental interference, of people who are sure vaccines cause autism and those who believe pesticides are destroying the food, from the granola eaters on the left to the granola eaters on the right including some who have made that transition personally -- MAHA ending up (as that acronym suggests) more-or-less aligned with MAGA during the last presidential election campaign. This year, in the mid-terms, that alignment has come apart.  In the Iowa Republican primary for Governor, MAHA backed Zack Lahn, w...

  I noted yesterday, that in writing his work on collective choice Sen had apparently read not only the work of John Rawls (which was inevitable), but responses to Rawls about the humans-only nature of the deliberations Rawls imagines behind the veil of ignorance. We are supposed to imagine ourselves as ignorant of our social class, race, and native intelligence, but presumably cognizant of the fact that, when the veil is lifted, we will turn out to be humans.  The responses wondered why the species barrier is that strong. What piques my interest is that Sen refers to these critiques (he does not source them specifically -- admittedly it is a bit of a digression from the main line of his thought) as half in jest and half serious.  Hmmmm.  Has Peter Singer written in response to Rawls? If he has, (and I'm too lazy to look into it right now) then I can easily imagine Singer making the point Sen emphasizes in dead earnest, utterly without jesting.  What Sen sees...

  Amartya Sen, an economist/philosopher, was born in November 1933 and he is still with us. He may be the single most important philosopher alive.  One of his works is COLLECTIVE CHOICE AND SOCIAL WELFARE. Or, perhaps, you might count this as two of his works.  The first book of that title was published in 1970, then a much expanded and re-written version appeared in 2017. I'd like today to quote a bit from the 2017 edition, in which Sen is with some sympathy discussing the work of John Rawls.  He says (this is a footnote): A half-jocular, half-serious objection to the criteria of fairness of Rawls and others often runs like this: Why confine placing oneself in the position of other human beings only, why not other animals also? Is the biological line so sharply drawn? What this line of attack misses is the fact that Rawls is crystallizing a rule of fairness that our value system does seem to have, rather than constructing a rule of fairness in vacuum based on notion...

  An alien recently landed his UFO in Vatican City. Pope Leo went out to meet him personally.  Leo, "I just want to know one thing.  Does your world know Jesus Christ as Savior?"  Alien, "Oh, yes.  He visits us about once every seven years.  We throw a big party when he arrives, then he preaches and heals amongst us. When Jesus has decided it is time to leave, our leaders declare a national holiday and there is a big send-off parade. We tell him we look forward to the next visit" Leo, "Really?  He only visited this planet once, more than two thousand years ago."  Alien, "Hmmm.  Did you give him a nice send-off?" 

I haven't seen either of the recent WICKED pics.  I don't plan to see them. Years ago I had some interest in the OZ fantasy world.  Back when it meant the Frank Baum books on the one hand and the 1939 movie on the other.  The Baum books were written as an allegorical take on the monetary debates of Baum's day. The word "Oz" itself suggests ounces, the standard measurement for gold. The notion of a "yellow brick road" suggests gold bricks, and perhaps that an insistence on a gold standard was leading the farmers of the US, the Kansans, toward danger. And so forth.  Of course the Garland movie didn't do much with the allegory -- It could have, since the '39 movie came out between FDR's abandonment of the gold standard (1933) and his partial reinvention of it by way of Bretton Woods (1944) -- but it didn't.  Personally, I have never asked myself prequel-producing questions like "how did the monkeys learn to fly" or "why does ...

  . Mid-2020, the firm (ticker symbol still GOOG) performed a stock split. In July 2021, Alphabet announced Intrinsic, a new robotics software company.  In November 2021, the formation of a new company, Isomorphic Labss, to promite the use of artificial intelligence in the pharmaceutical world.  August 2024, a US district court found Google guilty of violating antitrust law by using unlawful tie-ins to maintain its dominance in what remains its signature product, the search engine. No drastic remedy will be attempted, because the courts notices that the market has been taken over by AI/LLMs of late, and Google has no dominance there.  April 2025, another US district court finds Google guilty of illegally monopolizing parts of what is called the adtech stack, I.e. online advertising technology.  November 2025, the parties to the adtech case made their final arguments to the court in the eastern district of Virginia as to the proper remedies it should order. ...

Without getting fancy, here are some key dates: 1996: Larry Page and Sergey Brin experiment with a new type of search engine.  In those ancient days search engines simply ranked results by how often a searched-for term appears on a web page.  But Page and Brin are after something a bit more sophisticated, a range of metrics that cumulatively determine how important the searched items are on a particular page. They literally used a friend's garage as an office while working on this idea. A cliche is born, the garage-born web business.  1998: The new business is formally created when Page and Brin persuade a co-founder of Sun Microsystems to pony up $100,000 so they can incorporate, set up shop in Menlo Park and hire their first employee.  2002: Yahoo offers to buy out Google for $3 billion.  Google holds to a valuation of $5 billion, and the talks end without result. Also this year, in a display of the mainstreaming of the verb form of their name, an episode of t...

  I believe at some point I have mentioned in this blog that David O'Brien authored a book about an unpublished opinion written by Justice Robert H. Jackson that would have served as a concurrence to the court's opinion in the famous 1954 case, BROWN v. BOARD. The court's opinion was expressed in a unanimous vote and a single opinion by Chief Justice Earl Warren, declaring that the old rule that allowed "separate but equal" treatment in education facilities, i.e. segregation by race in schools, was a rule no longer. A follow-up decision the next year addressed the issue of remedy: it ordered states to desegregate their schools with all "deliberate speed." (Jackson was dead by that time.) Jackson never published his concurrence because the Chief Justice lobbied hard to dissuade him from doing so. It was Warren's considered view that on a matter so pressing the Court must speak with one voice. I bring it up again because I would like to offer a quota...

 There is a new book out about the Greek philosopher Parmenides, the central figure of the Eleatic school. Well, it is listed as a 2025 publication.  I, for one, will call that "new" given the antiquity of the subject matter.  It is an anthology titled simply, Parmenides: New Perspectives , edited by A.G. Long and Barbara M. Sattler. The Eleatics may have made their greatest impact on subsequent philosophy through Parmenides' disciple Zeno. The simplistic view (my view) is that Parmenides took a position that seemed, simply, nuts. There is no change, no motion, and no division in the word, there is only Being.     Zeno provided arguments for that position that made it seem less nutso, by making the common sensical world of change, gaps, and differences itself seem oddly paradoxical. That conventional understanding makes Zeno seem the more interesting figure in that dyad.  But the Long/Sattler book offers "new perspectives". One of them is that Parmenid...

People are looking for "tells".  What is a quick way to tell when I am reading AI slop, rather than something some real human has composed?  One of the better tells is the frequent use of the adverb "quietly" in metaphorical contexts. LLMs have received a level of publicity out of proportion to their role within the AI world (see the above Venn diagram) in part because they impact and indeed may threaten the livelihood of people like me. So we, because loquacious folk, talk about it. LLMs, large language models, have quietly developed the tick of using the word "quietly" a lot. You may recently have read about how a certain individual has "quietly" become important in deliberations of Congress, or how Stephen King has "quietly" amassed some large number of acreage of Maine real estate, or some whatever. "Quietly" does a lot of work for these models. It sounds as if it is saying something about something conspiratorial or trick...

Prelude: for those who were paying close attention to my haiku last week: yes, I did have the procedure done and, yes, things turned out well.  There is nothing nasty growing inside my butt. Prelude complete.  Anyway: I don't want to say much here about the ROYAL CARRIBEAN case issued by the US Supreme Court last week, in part because I may have something to say about it two months from now, as part of my annual round-up of  all things SCOTUS.  I'll only for today note that the case has Justice Thomas writing for the court, as one of an eight-member majority thereof, with Justice Kagan the sole standout.    And my only point is to ask a question. Does anyone know of another decision within the last couple of years that came down just that way?  In many politically sensitive cases, one gets a 6-3 lineup.  Sometimes the split consists of appointees of Presidents of the Republican Party versus those of Presidents of the Democratic Party, as in LOUISI...

Next time I do this  Really short poem thing for you, I'll use limericks. 

 Fifty five years now Since Gaye asked "what's goin' on". We still can't answer. 

One of the reasons  I must keep these posts short is: I've got shit to do.  

  Just a fleeting thought: I've got a busy week going. These posts will prove it. 

Sheila and Marty always seemed, to their mutual friends, an odd pairing.  Sheila, who in her youth had attended Columbia and Christ Church, Oxford, had nearly completed a doctoral thesis at the latter about Ezra Pound, ("the performance of madness in the Cantos" was how she described its subject to Marty) and she had gathered around her a circle of almost equally erudite friends.  Then there was Marty. Amongst them he was always getting the references wrong and the pronunciation disastrously so. He knew nothing about Pound except for Pound's fascistic broadcasts. But he was an actual working author (of technical manuals, mostly) and he occasionally did mention that Sheila, for all her talk of writing as Pound understood it, as Art, had never published ... anything anywhere.  And most places they went, Rowan (Marty's beautiful border collie, whose name had been  selected by his sister for its pure Scottishness) went along .   [Other stuff in here. Sheila and...

  Perhaps it is a great movie I don't know. I may never know.  I suspect I'm not going to see it until it ends up on small screens.  But THE DEVIL WEARS PRADA II has this to its credit.  It has inspired some fine writing amongst critics.  I'll just quote here one example, from SALON, where senior culture writer Coleman Spilde raves about it.  But “The Devil Wears Prada 2” isn’t here just to make easy money by force-feeding audiences IP slop in the form of Miranda Priestly one-liners; it’s using its existence to issue a mass-scale warning about the future, stressing the worth in fighting tooth and nail to preserve what we hold dear — in cinema, in publishing, in every element of life being disemboweled by rapacious tech bros in fleece vests. Dug.

Last week I quoted from a 19th century article by Chauncey Wright, mentor of the Harvard-based Metaphysical Club, concerning the beginnings of self-consciousness in humans.  He compared it with flight in birds. I'll try to elucidate. "The derivation of this power [self-consciousness], supposing it to have been observed by a finite angelic (not animal) intelligence, could not have been foreseen to be involved in the mental causes, on the conjunction of which it might, nevertheless, have been seen to depend. The angelic observation would have been a purely empirical one." The bracketing is mine, the parenthesis is Wright's.  Our observing angel presumably is aware of mental activity in a range of animals  -- stimulus is followed (often after some gap in time as if for deliberation) by response.  Monkey sees some food out of reach. Monkey looks around, sees a long stick, uses it to extend his reach for the food.  But then a particular "naked ape" appears who ha...

 I mentioned earlier that I have been reading Albert Schweitzer's work, PAUL AND HIS INTERPRETERS, a book of, and about, New Testament scholarship first published in 1912. I write today about a phrase in a footnote.  An untranslated German phrase that is here as the title of someone else's scholarly work in the field. Das Judentum in der vorchristlichen griechischen Welt . Feeding it into a translation algorithm, I learn that the monograph cited was titled: "Judaism in the pre-Christian Greek world."   Hmmm. I took two years of German in high school.  I'm pretty sure (even though I've had plenty of time to forget what I learned there, and have availed myself of the opportunity) that I never learned that "vor" works as the prefix "pre".   From now on, I'll know. 

  A few words from Chauncey Wright, famously of the "Metaphysical Club" that gave rise to the pragmaticism of Peirce and the pragmatism of James.   "The derivation of this power [self-consciousness], supposing it to have been observed by a finite angelic (not animal) intelligence, could not have been foreseen to be involved in the mental causes, on the conjunction of which it might, nevertheless, have been seen to depend. The angelic observation would have been a purely empirical one. The possibility of a subsequent analysis of these causes by the self-conscious animal himself, which would afford an explanation of their agency, by referring it to a rational combination of simpler elements in them, would not alter the case to the animal intelligence, just as a rational explanation of flight could not be reached by such an intelligence as a consequence of known mechanical laws, since these laws are also animal conditions, or rather are more material ones, of which our ange...

In the middle of last month I wrote a brief note here about Blue Owl, a large manager of alternative assets with a lot of money at stake in the software-as-a-service (SaaS) space.  We come around to Blue Owl again, because days ago Brown University announced it is cutting its stake in Blue Owl Capital Corp., one of the broad Blue Owl family of entities-- roughly cutting that stake in half.  This bugs me because: 1) it is such a large shift that ... 2) there is likely a reason for it -- somebody at Brown knows something about Blue Owl, and  3) I don't know what they know.  Indeed, it is my job to know what is up at such places as Blue Owl, and it looks like I'm missing out on something big.   Also, to be clear: this is NOT a "divestment" from Israel.  There is a student group at Brown that presses for that, and they have had their Gaza Solidarity Encampment, but so far they have had no success in affecting Brown's portfolio, and I don't know of any Blue...

The name “Ammonius Saccas” comes down to us as part of a line of intellectual succession, the last link in a chain connecting Plato to Plotinus. Plotinus of course formulated a systematic Neoplatonic philosophy that, though I am not an adherent, seems to be both impressive and important. But we have Plotinus’ texts to study and argue about. We don’t have any such thing for Ammonius Saccas. What we have is just the predicate that usually follows his name as subject. Saccas “taught Plotinus”. And we have THE NAME, which is fascinating in itself but tantalizing. The name “Saccas” could be a reference to the "Sakyas", an Indian ruling clan. From this possibility some have spun speculation on the presence of a Vedic element in lessons he taught Plotinus. Such visual representations as we possess allow for this speculation.  He might be Indian -- he might be Egyptian -- he might be a Greek.  Such speculation is a game anyone can play. See the image above to play along. I love the b...

As is now all-too-well known, the executive branch of the US government has put its resources behind the proposition that the numbers "8647" lined out with seashells, must to any reasonable person be seen as a threat to kill the 47th President.  Hmmm. So far as I could tell from the infamous photo, we're supposed to take them to be 8 6 47.  Month, day, year.  Did anything of importance worth memorializing on a North Carolina beach happen on an 8/6/47?  Nothing much from August 6, 1947, I'm afraid.  Except that a great cornerback for the Cincinnati Bengals, Ken Riley, was born on that date. He was posthumously admitted to the Football Hall of Fame in 2023. We get to something more promising if we step back a century. During the Mexican War, on August 6, 1847 the US marines began a march on Mexico City under the command of Lt. Colonel Samuel Watson.  This historic tidbit does have some visibility or, rather, audibility, because it is the reason the Marine Cor...

 Bolton's big hit "How am I Supposed to Live without You" begins thus: "I could hardly believe it/When I heard the news today/I had to come and get it straight from you/They said you were leavin'/Someone swept your heart away/From the look upon your face I see it's true." That  strikes me as a marvelous bit of story telling. The rest of the song, unfortunately, soon slips into standard-issue '80s ballad. But what exactly do I like about the above? The first line sets up the rest, pressing the listener to ask  what  was so unbelievable. We might already guess that a romantic disappointment was the hardly-believed thing, but we are steered subtly in another direction by "news".  The narrator didn't hear gossip or "the word".  He heard "the news".  For many of us that suggests headlines or something broadcast.  Then it turns out, not until the third line though, the first suspicion was accurate.  I could hardly believe ...

Quorant asked recently, "How is Wittgenstein related to both Kant and Hegel?".  I answered: The early Wittgenstein, the author of the TRACTATUS, is very much a Kantian as to epistemology. His own linguistic epistemology is what you get if you try to adhere to Kant as closely as possible consistent with a rejection of Kant’s idea of “synthetic a priori” knowledge. Kant would be surprised at the notion that anyone CAN separate Kantianism from the synthetic a priori. But Wittgenstein, in a manner, pulls it off.  Of that of which we cannot speak, Wittgenstein tells us, we must be silent.  He was speaking here of the really real, of that which is beyond that conceptual tools in our minds that control what we can take in as "facts." As to the knowable world, what "is the case" is a fact, not a thing.  It is provisionally or pragmatically real, not really real.  A Hegel/Wittgenstein link?  That is a different trick.  You COULD try to see the movement from th...

 This looks like a mess.  Peruvian police raids property of former electoral chief amid irregularities in elections So ... Peru has a two-tiered system of electing a President. In the first round, there is a free-for-all, with dozens of candidates.  If no one gets 50% + 1, the two top vote getters from that round run against each other in the second. Much like California's Governor's race.  The first round took place on April 12th.  Various snafus delayed some of the voting until the next day and snafus in the counting since then have been legion. It is clear as I wrote this that the largest vote total was the one that went to the daughter of a former President, that is to Alberto Fujimori's girl, Keiko Fujimori.  It is not at all clear who will be running against her. But the cliffhanger or "who came in second" isn't what is generating the headlines in Peru right now. Nor are they generated by the complicated nature of the Fujimori family's political lega...

 Many years ago, boys and girls, there were television commercials about the Keebler elves working to make their cookies inside a hollow oak tree. The commercials were probably as famous in their own way as the hucksterism of "Crazy Eddie" would become somewhat later.  Here's a link:  Keebler Elves in the Hollow Tree | 70s & 80s Tv Commercials | EL Fudge   The elves and their tree were first cooked up, so to speak, in 1968.  They got their boss and spokesperson, Ernie Fudge, two years later.  That's E.L Fudge.  E as in everybody -- L as in "loves" fudge.  The odd pointlessness of much of memory.  So: why did I illustrate this pointless memory with an image from the Sistine Chapel?  I just guess that as God is said to have created His world, we within that world create our own fictional worlds. Give the copy writers some credit. That it may have been just a day's work for some of those inolved does not make it uncreative. 

  The Canadian Journal of Philosophy has gone open access.  That is why I was able to discuss the article about free will and closure arguments in my Tuesday and Wednesday posts this week. Long live Canada.  Canadian Journal of Philosophy | Cambridge Core

  Tucker Carlson's son quits JD Vance's team after pundit suggested Trump might be 'Antichrist' News from inside the belly of the beast.  JD Vance is best bud with Tucker Carlson.  Back in the day, Tucker got his ambitious son, Buckley Carlson, a job on Vance's staff. I personally like to imagine that the rest of the staff called him Skippy.  That was back when Carlson, Vance, and Trump were all posing alike in their professed opposition to the neoconservatives of the Bush family circle and their forever wars.  Now, Trump is the wartime president, Carlson (bless his otherwise infernal soul) will not abide that.  Vance has no choice but to abide whatever Trump does and put a smile on his face while Trump does it, devastating as it may be to JD's chances of prevailing as a peace candidate in 2028.  Also devastating to Skip Carlson's chances of being a bigshot. Imagine my despair. 

You are looking for a second consecutive day at a fossil-disclosed jungle cat inspired by thought experiments over whether p was true already in ancient times.  I go back today to the issue raised in the Canadian Journal of Philosophy in an article earlier this year by Fabio Lampert and John William Waldrop.   The point is not to settle the issue of what is free will and is it real.  The point, rather, is in logical analytical fashion to render clear "previously underappreciated constraints on defenses of closure-based arguments against the existence of free will."  Who are they?  Lampert is affiliated with the University of Vienna, apparently a postdoctoral researcher there.  Waldrop's affiliation is with Notre Dame. They seem often to have worked together.   As I understand it, they are saying that various promising arguments against free will require a principle of closure, and that whether they have such a principle available in the sens...

In the Canadian Journal of Philosophy, Fabio Lampert and John William Waldrop recently offered a rather confusing argument about free will.  They didn't argue for it or against it precisely, but sought to outline what a solid argument for it or against it might look like.  They seem sure that no sound argument to either conclusion has appeared yet, despite the voluminous attempts. "Free will and intensional operators" is the title of their article, in the February 2026 issue. As one might expect, the phrase "intensional operators" plays a big part in their discussion. So does the word "closure".  They don't really define what they mean by [epistemic] closure in this context, but I expect that it means here that for any domain of discussion X, the domain is closed if and only if we can safely add to our knowledge by taking the enatilment of what we know as also ... known. [This is different from causal closure.]  Free will, for Lampert and Waldrop,...

The safe return of Artemis, with its four astronauts, reminded me of my boyhood  and the thrill of following the Gemini and Apollo flights. Some time in the school year that began around Labor Day 1969, a friend and classmate of mine named Pat showed me a poem he had written on how inspired he was by space exploration, and especially by the safe return of the Apollo 11 astronauts after their landing on the moon. It was a well-written poem for a 6th grader.  But he had chosen a picky critic.  I noted that he had described the return of this flight as a thing happening in spring.  Chiefly because thing and spring rhyme.  I pointed out, "the moon flight took place in July."  He thought about it and said he was not going to try to change the masterpiece. After all, thing and spring rhyme so nicely.  Well, they do. The following couplet also rhymes: It is hard to surpass the cosmic-sized bummer Of not having a rhyme for a flight in mid summer. Anyway: I am...

Just a book note today. I've heard good things about this one.  Brenda Wineapple, KEEPING THE FAITH (2026), concerning the Scopes Monkey trial still reverberating in our national consciousness after a century. Wineapple is a former faculty member at Sarah Lawrence and at present teaches in the MFA program at Columbia. She also has a world-class enviable surname.  Here's the link.  https://www.americamagazine.org/books/2026/01/15/review-the-scopes-monkey-trial-and-church-state-tensions/ [The above photo is of Clarence Darrow.]

 In finance journalism, the acronym HOTS stands for "Heard on the Street," the somewhat opinionated and somewhat gossipy column made famous, and made into a mover of markets, by Dan Dorfman in the 1960s.  Someone would advance the history of this branch of journalism if he could only write a comprehensive history of this column, from its earliest days in the 1930s to and through Dorfman's day to the notorious reign there of Foster Winans in the 1980s.  Anyway, Jonathan Weil writes it now. Weil, whose expertise as a forensic accountant has long given an edge to his journalism, defends the management of Blue Owl, a large alternative asset manager that specializes in private credit.  Private credit funds typically act as non-bank lenders to mid-market businesses. Blue Owl in particular has become controversial of late for its relative illiquidity. Specifically, it has lent a lot of money to firms on the software-as-a-service (SaaS) business, also known as the app econom...

Archeologists report the discovery, on an old papyrus manuscript, of verses they attribute to Empedocles, previously unavailable to us moderns.  The finding, days ago, didn't happen out in the field in Indiana Jones fashion. It appears to have happened in an office. Specifically, at the French Institute of Oriental Archeology in Cairo. It sounds as if somebody may have done the field work years ago, but the pertinent papyrus has been stored away, significance unrecognized, and only just now has been recognized as what it is.  What IS it?  Let us start with who is the author. Empedocles is one of the pre-Socratics, generally associated (though not geographically) with the Ionians: Thales, Anaximander, etc. Like the others of that school he is -- or has until now been -- known entirely through the fragments of his work quoted by later authors. He expounded a theory of "Love" and "Strife" as two cosmic forces, the former always mixing the (four) elements, the latte...

Let us take this from the top.  Just think of two creatures: one notoriously swift of foot, the other not so.  Then think that the slower creature has a short head-start in a race.  Of course the former will catch up with and pass the later.  That is inherent in what we mean by such notions as slow and fast.  But ... what if we assume with ancient geometers that space, and so every possible distance, is infinitely divisible?  Does that throw a wrench into things?  Fast creature (Achilles) starts ten meters behind slow creature (Turtle). Achilles moves ten times as fast.  Within some period of time (we will call it a nonce), Achilles has advanced those ten meters. Ah, but Turtle has now advanced one meter, and so is still ahead.  Achilles advances THAT distance in one-tenth of a nonce.  Yet he still has not caught up, for the Turtle has by now advanced one-hundredth of a meter.  And so forth, depressingly, on and on. It is impossible...

  And it means what it says.  That's the post. 

"Since our world conditions have changed, we can do no other than to think our own thoughts about the redemptive significance of the death of Jesus and all that is connected with it, basing our thoughts, so far as possible, on the original and Primitive-Christian doctrine.  But if we undertake this task, as we needs must, we ought to make clear to ourselves what we are doing.  We ought not to bemuse ourselves with the belief that we are simply taking over the whole of the dogmatic conceptions of Jesus and of Primitive Christianity, seeing that this is, in fact, impossible.  And we ought not to regard the obscurities and contradictions, in which we find ourselves involved, as originally attaching to Christian doctrine; we ought to be clearly conscious that they arise from the transformation of the historical and Primitive-Christian concepts into concepts necessary to adapt them to a later situation.  Instead of simply being able to take over traditional material as we...